Revolution1517 CE – 1648 CEEurope

Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses (1517) challenged Catholic Church authority over indulgences, sparking a religious upheaval that permanently divided Western Christianity into Catholic and Protestant branches.

Key Figures

Martin Luther John Calvin Henry VIII Pope Leo X Huldrych Zwingli

Preceding Causes

Widespread criticism of Church corruption (simony, pluralism, absenteeism), the printing press enabling rapid dissemination of reformist ideas, Renaissance humanism encouraging return to original texts, and the specific controversy over Johann Tetzel's sale of indulgences.

Pandemic1346 CE

Black Death

The bubonic plague pandemic devastated Eurasia and North Africa, killing an estimated 75–200 million people — roughly 30–60% of Europe's population — and fundamentally altering medieval society.

Historical Consequences

Wars of Religion culminating in the Thirty Years' War, creation of Protestant denominations (Lutheran, Reformed/Calvinist, Anglican), strengthening of nation-state sovereignty over religious affairs, and the Counter-Reformation within Catholicism.

Revolution1642 CE

English Civil War

Armed conflict between Parliamentarians and Royalists over constitutional government versus royal prerogative.

Cause-Effect Graph

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